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- <text id=93CT1725>
- <title>
- India--History
- </title>
- <history>
- Compact ALMANAC--CIA Factbook
- South Asia
- India
- </history>
- <article>
- <source>CIA World Factbook</source>
- <hdr>
- History
- </hdr>
- <body>
- <p> The people of India have had a continuous civilization since
- 2500 B.C., when the inhabitants of the Indus River Valley
- developed an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by
- surplus agriculture. This civilization declined around 1500
- B.C., probably due to ecological changes.
- </p>
- <p> During the second millenium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking
- tribes migrated across the Himalayas into the subcontinent. As
- they settled in the middle Ganges Valley, they adapted to the
- cultures that had preceded them.
- </p>
- <p> The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up
- of a myriad of kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th
- and 5th centuries A.D., Northern India was unified under the
- Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India's Golden Age,
- Hindu culture and political administration reached new heights.
- </p>
- <p> Islam entered the subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In
- the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and
- established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century
- descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and
- established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which would last 200
- years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was
- dominated by the Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar dynasties. During
- this time, the two systems--the prevailing Hindu and the
- Muslim--mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each
- other.
- </p>
- <p> The first British outpost in South Asia was established in
- 1619. at Surat on the northwestern coast of India. Later in the
- century, the East India Company opened permanent trading
- stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the
- protection of native rulers. The British gradually expanded
- their influence from these footholds, until, by the 1850s, they
- controlled almost the entire area of present-day India,
- Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In 1857, a rebellion in north India
- led by mutinous Indian soldiers caused the British parliament to
- transfer all political power from the East India Company to the
- Crown. From then until independence in 1947, Great Britain
- administered most of India directly and controlled the rest
- through treaties with local rulers.
- </p>
- <p> Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi transformed
- the Indian National Congress into a mass movement and used it to
- mount a popular campaign against British colonial rule. The
- Congress used both parliamentary and extraparliamentary means--nonviolent resistance and noncooperation--to seek its goal.
- </p>
- <p> Independence was achieved on August 15, 1947, and India
- became a dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with
- Jawaharlal Nehru as prime minister. Longstanding frictions
- between the Hindus and Muslims led the British to create two
- countries out of British India--India, and Pakistan as the
- homeland for the Muslims. India's constitution was promulgated
- on January 26, 1950, when the country became a republic within
- the Commonwealth.
- </p>
- <p> Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in
- May 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, a veteran of
- the Congress movement. When Shastri died in January 1966, power
- passed to Jawaharlal Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, who was
- prime minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening
- political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of
- emergency, suspending many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at
- the polls for her policies, Mrs. Gandhi called for elections in
- 1977, only to be defeated. Prime Minister Gandhi was replaced by
- veteran political leader Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata
- Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties that had united
- against Mrs. Gandhi and the Congress Party. In 1979, dissension
- within the Janata government led to Desai's loss of a majority
- in the Parliament. He was succeeded as prime minister by Charan
- Singh, whose interim government set the stage for new
- elections, which returned Mrs. Gandhi to office in January 1980.
- Her assassination on October 31, 1984, was followed by the
- selection of her son, Rajiv Gandhi, as prime minister.
- </p>
- <p>Current Political Conditions
- </p>
- <p> The Congress Party has ruled India since independence, with
- the exception of the 1977-79 period of Janata Party rule. Swept
- into office on an anti-Indira Gandhi wave that was in large
- part a product of the emergency (1975-77) the Janata Party
- unraveled in July 1979 after months of dispute over party
- structure and discord among party leaders. Subsequent efforts
- by opposition parties to unite against the Congress (I) Party
- have had little success.
- </p>
- <p> Promising a government that works, Mrs. Gandhi and her son,
- Sanjay, staged a remarkable political come back in 1980, leading
- Congress (I) to an overwhelming victory, first in the
- parliamentary elections and later in 14 of the 22 state
- assembly elections. A year after Sanjay Gandhi's death in a June
- 1980 plane accident, Mrs. Gandhi's elder son, Rajiv, was
- persuaded to enter politics and was elected to his brother's
- parliamentary seat in Uttar Pradesh by a wide margin.
- </p>
- <p> Leadership of the Congress (I) and the nation fell to Rajiv
- when Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated on October 31, 1984. Seven
- weeks later, Rajiv led Congress (I) to a resounding victory in
- national elections, capturing 401 of the 508 parliamentary
- seats that were contested. Sympathy for Mrs. Gandhi and failure
- of the major opposition parties to unite against Congress (I)
- were contributing factors in the landslide: another key factor
- was Rajiv's ability to inspire younger voters with his pledges
- to promote efficiency and honesty in government.
- </p>
- <p> The young prime minister inherited numerous problems stemming
- from the growth of communal violence and the demands of regional
- parties that the central government cede more authority to the
- states. The most serious of these problems is in Punjab where
- some Sikhs have agitated for a separate Sikh state. In June
- 1984, the Indian Army was deployed against armed Sikh militants
- who had barricaded themselves in the Golden Temple in Amritsar.
- The extremists had used the temple for months as a sanctuary
- from which they directed terrorist attacks against politicians,
- government officials, and police, both Hindu and Sikh. Mrs.
- Gandhi's assassins claimed their act was in revenge for the
- attack on the Golden Temple. The assassination was followed by
- anti-Sikh violence in New Delhi and some other northern cities.
- Sikh terrorism and the government's inability to implement
- political and economic policies acceptable to moderate Sikhs
- have further complicated efforts to resolve the Punjab situation
- in a manner that preserves the integrity of Indian federalism.
- </p>
- <p> In mid-1986 and 1987, Prime Minister Gandhi's Congress Party
- was defeated by regionally based parties in state elections in
- Kerala, West Bengal, and Haryana, although these setbacks did
- not affect Congress' commanding majority in parliament.
- Congress' weakened position in Indian politics was attributed to
- its inability to resolve the Punjab crisis, allegations of
- corruption within the party and government, and a string of
- resignations and dismissals of key officials.
- </p>
- <p>Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs,
- March 1989.
- </p>
-
- </body>
- </article>
- </text>
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